Agency also explains the rationale for measuring haze the way it does
The Sunday Times, 23 Jun 2013
On a hot day, looking at a thermometer would tell you precisely what the temperature is where you are.
Many seem to think the Pollutant Standards Index (PSI), Singapore's main indicator of air quality, works the same way. They expect it to correlate to the haze they see or smell around them at that moment.
This has given rise to some disquiet about the PSI readings in recent days, as the haze conditions worsened. Some members of the public expressed concerns when the posted PSI values - averaged over the past three or 24 hours - turned out different from what they observed.
Yesterday, the National Environment Agency (NEA) spelt out just how it compiles the PSI and why it does it that way.
It explained that it uses a specific way of collecting air samples over time and measuring the amount of micro-particles in them to determine their quality.
It also requires a wider base of samples, taken from various parts of the island to get a better picture of how polluted the air is across the country.
The NEA said that its methods and equipment to measure pollutants are based on the United States Environmental Protection Agency standards.
The PSI is derived from measurements at 11 ambient air monitoring stations located at places such as Temasek Polytechnic and Nanyang Technological University.
Five key pollutants are measured separately. But the PSI is not a composite index. Instead, it reflects the pollutant of the highest concentration.
But just how does the NEA measure levels of tiny particles in the air like PM2.5 and PM10 and translate them into a PSI reading?
Then, a beta ray (a form of radiation) is passed through the filter;
The particles on the filter would weaken the ray's intensity, and how dim it gets tells you how much particulate matter there is;
These readings are then averaged over three or 24 hours before they are fed into a standard set of indices, based on the health impacts of the pollutant at different observed levels. This translates the reading into a PSI.
NEA said yesterday that health advisories will continue to be based on the 24-hour PSI and PM2.5 values as those are what there is most scientific evidence for.
NEA said yesterday that health advisories will continue to be based on the 24-hour PSI and PM2.5 values as those are what there is most scientific evidence for.
It explained that the 24-hour PSI is also the best indicator for the health impact of prolonged exposure to the haze than shorter-term measures, which can fluctuate quite a bit over the course of the day. This was evident yesterday, for example, when Singapore enjoyed blue skies in the afternoon when the haze seemed to clear temporarily.
Summing up small particles
By Grace Chua, The Sunday Times, 23 Jun 2013
Singapore is blanketed by its worst haze in 16 years. But what goes into air quality measures?
It measures five key air pollutants: sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide and PM10, which is particulate matter 10 microns or smaller in size - about one-seventh the diameter of a strand of human hair.
By Grace Chua, The Sunday Times, 23 Jun 2013
Singapore is blanketed by its worst haze in 16 years. But what goes into air quality measures?
What is the PSI?The Pollutant Standards Index, or PSI, is Singapore's main indicator of air quality.
It measures five key air pollutants: sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide and PM10, which is particulate matter 10 microns or smaller in size - about one-seventh the diameter of a strand of human hair.
The reading reflects the pollutant with the highest concentration.
Any reading above 100 is considered unhealthy, and anything higher than 300 is hazardous.
The National Environment Agency (NEA) has been publishing hourly updates of its three-hour average PSI reading on its website. For example, the three-hour average at 3pm is taken from readings from noon to 3pm.
This means that the PSI at, say 3pm, is not strictly speaking a reflection of the haze you might see around you at that time, but an average of the situation over the previous three hours at various recording stations around the island.
Each hour, the NEA also publishes the 24-hour average PSI for the past 24 hours. The 24-hour PSI is from readings over the past 24 hours, averaged out. This reflects the sustained exposure levels that a person might face, and is said to be a better indicator of the health impact of the haze.
What is PM2.5?PM stands for particulate matter, while PM2.5 refers to very fine particles that are less than 2.5 microns in size - a thirtieth of the diameter of a human hair.
The NEA also publishes hourly PM2.5 readings, averaged over 24 hours, which measure micrograms of PM2.5 per cubic metre.
Readings above 40 trigger health advisories. At 9pm yesterday, the 24-hour PM2.5 reading was 199-242 µg/m3, varying by geographical area.
Concerns about the health effects of PM2.5 levels have led governments to push for the use of higher quality diesel fuels in vehicles since these produce exhaust fumes with less of these tiny particles. Efforts to raise fuel quality have been ongoing for many years, quite separately from concerns over the haze that comes and goes.
Where does particulate matter come from?Fine particulate matter, or PM2.5, can come from many sources all around us, such as burning plants, automobiles and natural sources like volcanic eruptions. It can even be formed in the atmosphere by chemical reactions. In this latest case, much of it comes from burning plant matter in Sumatra.
What are the health effects of PM2.5?Because these very fine particles can get farther into the lungs and pass more easily into the bloodstream, long- and short-term exposure to PM2.5 can cause cardiovascular problems such as heart attacks and strokes. PM2.5 exposure is linked to increased hospital admissions and emergency department visits for respiratory effects. These include asthma attacks as well as increased respiratory symptoms such as coughing, wheezing and shortness of breath.
Concerns about the health effects of PM2.5 levels have led governments to push for the use of higher quality diesel fuels in vehicles since these produce exhaust fumes with less of these tiny particles. Efforts to raise fuel quality have been ongoing for many years, quite separately from concerns over the haze that comes and goes.
Why is the PM2.5 reading better than the PSI in some regions and worse in others?Climate researcher Matthias Roth, an associate professor of geography at the National University of Singapore, said the distribution of PM10 and PM2.5 depends on the burning source. Different areas in Singapore may have been affected by haze from different spots in Indonesia, which may vary in their vegetation or soil composition.
Why does the PSI peak in the evening and drop overnight?The wind tends to drop in the evening, meaning smoke accumulates then, said the NEA. But calmer breezes do not bring as much haze from Sumatra, so the PSI falls some hours later.
Professor Roth said this could partly be because the sun's heat helps the air to rise and mix. Without this, pollutants could be trapped near the surface.
Dr Grandey from Censam suggested a few other possibilities. Some pollutants are produced or destroyed by sunlight. So the amount of sunlight may affect the pollution to some extent. Or the daily pattern could just be spurious. But more research and analysis would have to be done to test these theories, he said.
What filters out PM2.5?Ministry of Manpower guidelines say employees who work outdoors for sustained periods and have health conditions that make them susceptible should be issued with N95 masks or other protective devices when the PSI goes above 100.
And high-efficiency particulate air filters (Hepa filters) can remove particles that are as small as 0.3 micron in size.
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